2007) and azuki bean (0.05; Xu et al. Tomooka,  N.,  C.  Lairungreang,  P.  Nakeeraks,  Y.  Egawa and  C.  Thavarasook (1992) Center of genetic diversity and dissemination pathways in mung bean deduced from seed protein electrophoresis. PCR amplification was performed as follows: the PCR mixture was prepared in a total volume of 10 μl containing 4 ng of genomic DNA, 5 ρmo1 of each forward and reverse primer, 1× Taq buffer, 200 mM dNTPs, 2 mM MgCl2, and 1 U Taq DNA polymerase (Thermo Scientific, Wilmington, USA). and  K.L. Weir,  B.S. The black gram varieties J.L and PDU-1 performed best at all the temperature durations over characters. Vertovec (1994) noted that about 95,000 people from India migrated to Trinidad from 1874 to 1917; some of them might have introduced black gram, resulting in the highest gene diversity detected in this study. 2013). Li,  C.D.,  C.A. Vaughan,  Y.  Egawa,  T.  Yogoyama and  Y.  Tateishi (1997) Collection of seed and nodule samples from wild subgenus, Tomooka,  N.,  D.A. 1B). Edited and published by : Japanese Society of Breeding. 2011), and rice bean (10.2 alleles; Table 4), but still much lower than that in azuki bean (18.5 alleles; Table 4). Among germplasm from major growing areas (South Asia, West Asia, the Himalayan region, and Southeast Asia), that from South Asia possessed the highest gene diversity, followed by Southeast Asia, West Asia, and the Himalayan region. SSR markers from one species can also be used in other related species. Pak J Bot 44(2):473–478 Google Scholar Gupta S, Gopalakrishna T (2009) Genetic diversity analysis in blackgram ( Vigna mungo ) using AFLP and transferable microsatellite markers from azuki bean ( Vigna angularis ). Among the cultivated black gram, gene diversity of America was the greatest but comparable with that of other regions (Table 1). The analyses also revealed that cultivated black gram from South Asia was genetically distinct from that from West Asia. However, most accessions were differentiated from one region to another. Two major groups exist for black gram from West Asia (Fig. 22, Issue. Based on the plant introduction history of America, a black gram accession was introduced into the country in 1906 from Barbados (Piper and Morse 1914); thus, the introduction of black gram from Asia to America occurred more than 100 years ago. In this study, black grams from India were separated into two major groups. Zahid and  M.A. The genetic consequences of reduced population size and fragmentation on black grama, or other grasslands, remains unclear. However, these studies have provided little information on the extent of genetic diversity in black gram because each study, except Gupta et al. Reisch (1994) A simple and efficient method for DNA extraction from grapevine cultivars and. Nei’s genetic distance (DA) (Nei et al. Black grams from the American collection showed wide variation, scattering on the upper and lower left of the plot (Fig. 2005). Fuller,  D.Q. Bhat,  S.  Lakhanpaul,  M.  Latha,  P.K. About a half of the accessions were associated with accessions from South Asia, while the other half were associated with accessions from West Asia. Tomooka,  N.,  S.  Chotechuen,  N.  Boonkerd,  B.  Taengsan,  S.  Nuplean,  D.A. silvestris Lukoki, Maréchal, and Otoul (Chandel et al. In general, DA between cultivated black grams and South Asian wild black grams was lower than DA between cultivated black grams and Southeast Asian wild black grams. Appl. In this study, 520 cultivated and 14 wild accessions of black gram (Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper) were assessed for diversity using 22 SSR markers. A phylogenic tree was constructed by neighbor-joining analysis based on DA among individual black gram accessions. 2008, 2009, Tangphatsornruang et al. Gene diversity and AR from SSR allelic data (Table 1) shows that wild black gram possesses higher genetic diversity than cultivated black gram. HO in cultivated black gram germplasm from different regions or between cultivated and wild germplasm were comparable (Table 1). Ecol. The PCR products were separated on 5% denatured polyacrylamide gel (w/v; 19 : 1 acrylamide-bisacrylamide) with 7M urea and 1×TBE buffer. 2013). Genetic distance analysis revealed that cultivated black gram was more closely related to wild black gram from … Mehra (1980) Evolution adaptation relationships and uses of the species of, Kongjaimun,  A.,  A.  Kaga,  N.  Tomooka,  P.  Somta,  T.  Shimizu,  Y.  Shu,  T.  Isemura,  D.A. These species include V. subterranea (L.) Verdc. Yet, they showed low distance from cultivated black grams from Southeast Asia. ty in Seventy ve genotypes of black gram Gram (Vigna mungo L. Hepper) and to identify genetic diverse parents for hybridization programmed at yield improvement in this crop. Biol. 1D). Vaughan and  P.  Srinives (2014) Detection of genome donor species of neglected tetraploid crop. Twenty-two polymorphic SSR markers with clear bands were then used to analyze all the DNA samples. mungo (L.) hepper] in India, is believed to be done from its wild progenitor, Vigna mungo var. Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is the fifth most important annual oilseed and food legume crop in Kenya after dry pea (Pisum sativum), garden bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), Black gram (Vigna mungo) and cowpea (Vigna radiata) (Asif et al., 2013).Groundnut is among the major stable food crops in western Kenya and income earner to small holder farmers. 1E), scattering mainly around the left half of the plot. Fatokun,  B.  Ubi,  B.B. A similar pattern was found in black gram in this study, where cultivated black grams from South Asia, West Asia, and Southeast Asia showed the same level of gene diversity and low genetic distance among each other (Tables 1, 3). Issue 2 Vertovec,  S. (1994) “Official” and “Popular” Hinduism in the Caribbean: historical and contemporary trends in Surinam, Trinidad and Guyana. In India, wild black gram and wild mungbean populations generally have the same geographical distribution, although some show distinct distribution (Bisht et al. However, gene diversity and AR between the Himalayan black grams in cluster II and cluster III are comparable (0.42 vs. 0.48 and 2.69 vs. 3.77, respectively; data not shown). Souframanien,  J. and  T.  Gopalakrishna (2004) A comparative analysis of genetic diversity in blackgram genotypes using RAPD and ISSR markers. Accessions from the Himalayan region formed a subcluster in cluster II. Based on the country of origin, outcrossing rates were between 0% in Côte d’Ivoire and Trinidad and 16.69% in Zaire. The genus Vigna is a large leguminous taxon comprising 104 described species distributed in tropical and subtropical regions of Africa, Asia, America, and Australia (Lewis et al. 2012), and mungbean (Seehalak et al. In farmers' fields in tropical Vertisols of peninsular India, "high" fertilizer and pesticide usage at about 2.3 times the recommended rates in black gram (Vigna mungo) did not have a deleterious effect on the abundance of culturable microorganisms, associative nitrogen fixers, nitrifiers, and 16S rRNA gene diversity compared to normal rates. All the wild accessions were included in this subpopulation. Singh and  G.J. 2002). Gene diversity of cultivated accessions among regions was comparable, while allelic richness of South Asia was higher than that of other regions. 2006). Their combined citations are counted only for the first article. Black grams from South Asia showed the broadest distribution (Fig. Weeden and  B.I. 2008 ). 2009). Export citation Request permission. Comparison by SSR analysis with other closely related Vigna species, including mungbean, azuki bean, and rice bean, revealed that level of gene diversity of black gram is comparable to that of mungbean and rice bean but lower than that of azuki bean. However, archaeological evidence suggests that domestication of black gram may be as long as 3,500–4,500 years ago (Fuller and Harvey 2006). Sorells and  S.D. Comparison by SSR analysis with other closely related Vigna species, including mungbean, azuki bean, and rice bean, revealed that level of gene diversity of black gram is comparable to that of mungbean and rice bean but lower than that of azuki bean. Appl. CiteSeerX - Document Details (Isaac Councill, Lee Giles, Pradeep Teregowda): Genetic diversity analysis in different varieties of black gram using RAPD markers The analyses also revealed that cultivated black gram from South Asia was genetically distinct from that from West Asia. The PCR cycling profile for the genomic SSR markers was the same as that described by Somta et al. STRUCTURE, principal coordinate and neighbor-joining analyses consistently revealed that 534 black gram accessions were grouped into three major subpopulations. There are not many breeding programs for black gram, and most of them are in India, Pakistan, and Thailand. This suggests that black gram cultivars from the Himalayan region were derived from two different origins. The present study is the first large-scale molecular diversity analysis of black gram, covering accessions from all major growing regions in the world, and including both wild and cultivated types. Outcrossing rate of the black gram found in this study (4.33%) is higher than that reported in mungbean (1.06%; Sangiri et al. Interestingly, gene diversities of cultivated black gram in America and Africa are higher than those in other regions. 2002). Clear genetic differentiation between the wild and cultivated gene pools was shown in mungbean (Sangiri et al. Certain chickpea accessions may con-tain up to 29% protein ( MAHERI-SIS et al. Ohwi & Ohashi (rice bean), and V. reflexo-pilosa Hayata (créole bean) (Tomooka et al. 1C). Srinives,  P. (1990) Mungbean breeding and genetic resources in Thailand. The lower number of alleles found in black gram appears to be due partly to the much smaller number of wild accessions used in this study. Genetic variability of black gram has been studied based on morphological and agronomic traits (Ghafoor et al. Although cultivated black grams from Southeast Asia possessed high gene diversity (Table 1), they mainly showed a close genetic relationship with each other (Figs. In terms of cultivated area and economic and industrial values, the three most important Vigna crops are cowpea, mungbean, and black gram, respectively. Wild black grams showed similar outcrossing rates with cultivated black grams. 2. Wang,  X.W.,  A.  Kaga,  N.  Tomooka and  D.A. The use of SSR markers enables comparison of allelic diversity in black gram gene pools with the other crop gene pools in the same genus. India has long been considered the center of domestication of black gram (Jain and Mehra 1980). Xu,  H.X.,  J.  Tian,  N.  Tomooka,  A.  Kaga,  T.  Isemura and  D.A. Based on protein banding variation in a large set of mungbean germplasm, Tomooka et al. In all cases, DA between wild and cultivated black grams was moderate (0.41 to 0.56). Accession ID-50 was most closely related to, but clearly distinguishable from, black gram (V. mungo) in both phylogenetic trees (Figs 3 and 4). Due to its relative drought tolerance, short life cycle (75–90 days), and ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen in association with soil Rhizobium and Bradyrhizobium bacteria, the crop is grown as a component in various cropping systems, but chiefly following rice and wheat. 2008) and is lower than that reported in rice bean (0.15; Tian et al. (A) All accessions, (B) South Asia, (C) West Asia, (D) Himalayan region, (E) Southeast Asia, America, Africa, and unknown origin, and (F) wild germplasm. Black gram has smaller flowers and paler yellow corolla than rice bean (Tomooka et al. Sangiri,  C.,  A.  Kaga,  N.  Tomooka,  D.A. Black grams from Southeast Asia, America, and Africa, as well as those of unknown origin, showed relatively narrow distribution (Fig. Although the scatter plot of black gram germplasm based on PC1 and PC2 showed that there were no clear distinct groups of germplasm, it demonstrated that accessions in the same subpopulation as identified by STRUCTURE analysis were mainly scattered together on the PCoA plot (Fig. In addition, one accession of black gram from Southeast Asia was grouped within a subcluster together with black gram from Nepal (Fig. Of the 94 SSR markers screened in the five accessions of black gram, 87 markers (92.55%) were able to successfully amplify their DNAs, and 37 of the amplifiable markers (42.53%) showed polymorphism (Supplemental Table 2). 2005). Black grams from the Himalayan region also showed wide distribution (Fig. The PCR products were visualized by silver staining. Genome, Bisht,  I.S.,  K.V. Finally, a run with the optimum K, 100,000 burn-in period, and 500,000 MCMC replications were performed to assign individual black gram accessions to clusters. Wild black grams from South Asia showed narrow distribution around the middle left half of the plot (Fig. 2004), cowpea (Gupta and Gopalakrishna 2010, Kongjaimun et al. 2009, Somta et al. 2001). Black gram and mungbean are closely related species and complement each other as a secondary gene pool. Vaughan (2006) The Asian. 1F). (2008), while that for the EST-SSR markers was the same as that noted by Kongjaimun et al. (cowpea), V. vexillata (L.) (zombi pea), V. radiata (L.) Wilczek (mungbean), V. angularis (Ohwi) Ohwi & Ohashi (azuki bean), V. mungo (L.) Hepper (black gram), V. aconitifolia Jacq. unguiculata primer-pairs. Maréchal,  R.,  J.M. Most of them scattered around the center of the plot. Both species originated in India, sharing several common morphological characteristics, and are cultivated and utilized in similar ways (Tomooka et al. Accession ID-50 was most closely related to, but clearly distinguishable from, black gram (V. mungo) in both phylogenetic trees (Figs (Figs3 3 and and4). 2005). 2013), respectively, to depict relationships among the accessions. Cultivation of black gram also principally occurs in these countries, while mungbean is more widely cultivated. This suggests that the useful traits and interspecific cross-compatibility of V. sahyadriana should be investigated to determine if it can be used as genetic resources for black gram. Cluster II principally consisted of accessions from South Asia together with several accessions from the Himalayan region and a few accessions from West Asia. Singh (2005) Diversity and genetic resources of wild, Chaitieng,  B.,  A.  Kaga,  N.  Tomooka,  T.  Isemura,  Y.  Kuroda and  D.A. Gupta,  H.K. Ye,  N.F. The genetic diversity of 23 chickpea accessions representing Kyrgyz landraces and cultivars, ICARDA breeding lines, Spanish and ... black gram (or black lentil), green gram or mungbean ( K AUR et al. 2005) also supports the long history of domestication of black gram in the country. 2008), but very much lower than that of rice bean (17.00%; Tian et al. Data will also be presented that measure the genetic distances, differences, and similarities between the spatial and temporal populations. Therefore, analyses of the genetic diversity of symbiotic bacteria and the process of symbiosis under stress environments should be conducted. 2). Narrow geographical distribution and recent or non-intensive domestication of black gram appear to account for the unclear distinction between wild and cultivated forms of this crop. 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